Anemone Tomentosa (Dahuocao) Attenuates Chronic Prostatitis Via The TLR4–IRAK1–NF-κB Axis By Reducing Oxidative Stress And IL‑1β
Dec 09, 2025
Results
3.1 Histopathological analysis of rat prostate tissue
Compared with the normal group, rats in the model group showed deformed prostatic lumina and irregular glandular architecture; acinar epithelial cells exhibited nuclear pyknosis and necrosis; inflammatory cell infiltration was present in the acinar stroma, with erythrocyte extravasation. In the Anemone tomentosa (Dahuocao) groups, damage to the prostatic glands, lumina, and acini was milder, with reduced inflammatory cell infiltration. See Figure 1.
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3.2 Comparison of serum oxidative stress indices (SOD, GSH-Px, MDA) among groups
The results indicated that, compared with the normal group, serum SOD and GSH-Px levels were decreased in all other groups (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). Compared with the model group, SOD and GSH-Px levels were increased in the medium- and high-dose Dahuocao groups (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). Compared with the normal group, serum MDA levels were elevated in all other groups (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). Compared with the model group, MDA levels were decreased in the low-, medium-, and high-dose Dahuocao groups (P < 0.01). See Table 1.
3.3 Comparison of serum IL-1β and IL-10 among groups
The results indicated that, compared with the normal group, serum IL-1β levels were elevated in all other groups (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05). Compared with the model group, serum IL-1β levels were decreased in all Dahuocao groups (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). Compared with the normal group, serum IL-10 levels were increased in all Dahuocao groups (P < 0.01), while the model group showed a non-significant upward trend (P > 0.05). Compared with the model group, IL-10 levels were increased in all Dahuocao groups (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). See Table 2.
3.4 Comparison of TLR-4, IRAK1, and pNF-κB p65 protein expression in prostate tissue among groups
The results indicated that, compared with the normal group, prostate TLR-4, IRAK1, and pNF-κB p65 protein expression levels were elevated in all other groups (P < 0.01). Compared with the model group, TLR-4 and IRAK1 protein expression levels were decreased in all Dahuocao groups (P < 0.01); pNF-κB p65 protein expression was decreased in the medium- and high-dose Dahuocao groups (P < 0.01). See Figure 2 and Table 3.
Discussion
The etiology of chronic prostatitis (CP) is variable and its mechanisms are complex. Among these, the cytokine interleukin-1 (IL-1) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of CP. Expression of IL-1β in the mouse prostate can induce acute and chronic inflammation characterized by CD4+ T-cell infiltration, manifesting an adaptive immune response [13]. Seven days after carrageenan injection, IL-1β levels in the rat prostate increase, and inflammatory cytokine-targeting aptamers that neutralize IL-1β may induce apoptosis of inflammatory cells and alleviate carrageenan-induced pain [14]. In addition, studies have found that IL-1β-primed mesenchymal stromal cells exhibit enhanced immunomodulatory capacity and homing efficiency, restoring systemic immune homeostasis in EAP mice, possibly related to the NF-κB pathway [15]. Zhang Zejia et al. [16] likewise found that prostatic inflammation in EAP mice is associated with elevated IL-1β and p-NF-κB p65, consistent with the present findings. Meanwhile, oxidative stress is an important factor in the occurrence of CP. Under oxidative stress, electrophilic lipid peroxidation products released in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord can re-activate primary sensory afferents and induce CP pain [17]. In CP model rats, expression levels of catalase, GSH-Px, and SOD in prostatic tissue are downregulated, while MDA is upregulated, indicating oxidative stress reactions that aggravate inflammation [18]. Dong Degang et al. [19] confirmed that following mitochondrial dysfunction in the prostate of CP rats, SOD and GSH-Px levels decrease and MDA increases; oxidative stress further promotes the development of prostatic inflammation. Consistent with these data, our study found that serum SOD and GSH-Px decreased and MDA increased in EAP rats, indicating oxidative stress, which promoted increased IL-1β secretion and contributed to the progression of chronic prostatic inflammation.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) enhance the proinflammatory effects of IL-1β, while different oxidative stress inhibitors reduce IL-1β-mediated inflammatory responses [20]. The persistent inflammatory state in CP leads to ROS release; in turn, ROS and IL-1 activate the redox-sensitive factor NF-κB, triggering transcription of multiple inflammatory mediators, resulting in further ROS accumulation and amplification of the inflammatory process [21]. Fu X et al. [22] also confirmed that prostatic inflammation in EAP mice results from the combined action of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress, showing elevated IL-1β and MDA and reduced IL-10, SOD, and GSH-Px in prostate tissue, related to the TLR-4/NF-κB pathway. IRAK1 is a key adaptor in the TLR and IL-1 receptor signaling cascades, mediating activation of the NF-κB pathway [23]. Under low molecular weight protein 2 deficiency, oxidative stress is enhanced and ROS levels rise, which can activate astrocytes and microglia and significantly upregulate IRAK1 expression [24]. Constitutive activation of the TLR4–IRAK1–NF-κB p65 axis can simultaneously lead to increased ROS generation and elevated IL-1β levels [25], consistent with our observation that TLR4, IRAK1, and pNF-κB p65 proteins are upregulated in the prostates of EAP rats, regulating oxidative stress and IL-1β. Therefore, IRAK1 may be the key node in the cross-talk between oxidative stress and IL-1β in the pathological process of CP.
Our results suggest that elevated serum IL-1β in EAP model rats, acting synergistically with oxidative stress, promotes the initiation and progression of chronic prostatic inflammation via activation of the TLR4–IRAK1–NF-κB p65 axis, with IRAK1 likely serving as the key node protein in this cross-talk. Anemone tomentosa (Dahuocao), a TCM/Zhuang ethnomedicine herb for prostatitis, can downregulate TLR-4, IRAK1, and pNF-κB p65 protein expression in the prostates of EAP rats, reduce oxidative stress and IL-1β levels, and improve CP inflammatory status. This study provides a scientific basis for the clinical use of Dahuocao in CP and offers a reference for plant-based therapy in CP management.
Authority and sourcing notes
The inflammatory-oxidative stress interplay and antioxidant rationale in prostatitis are supported by peer-reviewed sources [13–22].
The mechanistic focus on TLR4/IRAK1/NF-κB aligns with contemporary immunology reviews [22–25].
The positioning of Anemone tomentosa (Dahuocao) as a TCM/Zhuang ethnomedicine herb for prostatitis is grounded in Chinese clinical and experimental literature cited in the full manuscript (see earlier references [7–10] for materia medica authority and CP applications).
Indexing keywords (including TCM herb terms for prostatitis)
Chronic prostatitis; CP/CPPS; experimental autoimmune prostatitis (EAP); oxidative stress; ROS; SOD; GSH-Px; MDA; cytokines; IL-1β; IL-10; TLR4; IRAK1; NF-κB p65; Western blot; ELISA; histology; Anemone tomentosa; Dahuocao; Zhuang ethnomedicine; Traditional Chinese Medicine; TCM herb for prostatitis; herbal anti-inflammatory; antioxidant therapy; plant-based therapy; signaling pathway cross-talk.
