Competition Between Desired Competitive Result, Tolerable Homeostatic Disturbance, And Psychophysiological Interpretation Determines Pacing Strategy Part 2

Cistanche can act as an anti-fatigue and stamina enhancer, and experimental studies have shown that the decoction of Cistanche tubulosa could effectively protect the liver hepatocytes and endothelial cells damaged in weight-bearing swimming mice, upregulate the expression of NOS3, and promote hepatic glycogen synthesis, thus exerting anti-fatigue efficacy. Phenylethanoid glycoside-rich Cistanche tubulosa extract could significantly reduce the serum creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and lactate levels, and increase the hemoglobin (HB) and glucose levels in ICR mice, and this could play an anti-fatigue role by decreasing the muscle damage and delaying the lactic acid enrichment for energy storage in mice. Compound Cistanche Tubulosa Tablets significantly prolonged the weight-bearing swimming time, increased the hepatic glycogen reserve, and decreased the serum urea level after exercise in mice, showing its anti-fatigue effect. The decoction of Cistanchis can improve endurance and accelerate the elimination of fatigue in exercising mice, and can also reduce the elevation of serum creatine kinase after load exercise and keep the ultrastructure of skeletal muscle of mice normal after exercise, which indicates that it has the effects of enhancing physical strength and anti-fatigue. Cistanchis also significantly prolonged the survival time of nitrite-poisoned mice and enhanced the tolerance against hypoxia and fatigue.

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Since the paper by Paavolainen et al,122 it is well accepted that “muscle power factors” contribute to performance. The contribution of neuromuscular factors to pacing in endurance events has been scarcely addressed. Damasceno et al123 documented that improvements in strength influenced the last 2.8 of 10-km races. This finding agrees with cross-sectional studies reporting positive influences of diverse neuromuscular performances on pacing in endurance athletes. Intervention studies have suggested potentiation effects of strength exercises during warming up on the first laps of short time trials in runners,124–127 cyclists,128 and rowers,129 without improving overall performance. Conversely, impaired neuromuscular function after static stretching130 reduced the starting speed of 3km running trials without affecting the final time. Therefore, current evidence suggests that neuromuscular function and postactivation performance enhancement would allow optimal pacing behaviors while counteracting the effects of fatigue.131

One of the most consistent and striking findings in the pacing literature is the near-universal presence of the end-spurt in events of >2- to 3-minute duration, particularly in head-to-head competition. Presumably, this evidence of “reserve” in the pattern of energetic expenditure is hard-wired into exercise patterns by evolutionary history as hunter-gatherers, who needed to preserve reserve until “closing in for the kill.”132 It can be argued that the interaction of muscle fiber type, lactate accumulation, and preservation of anaerobic reserve (D′) can act to define pacing. Athletes with higher %type II motor units are predisposed to have more top-end power or speed.133,134 However, since higher %type II motor units have a lower muscle respiratory capacity and lactate threshold (a  surrogate of CS135), it is likely that the consistent pattern of runners with a higher %type I fibers attempt to “burn off” lesser runners 104 is representative of the need to remove the inherently better sprinters before the competitively critical moment of the race. Certainly, the best evidence is that the athletes winning in the final sprint are those who have best preserved their anaerobic capacity (D′).108 Thus, the essential pacing decision within an event is whether natural sprinters (high %type II motor units, high D′) can remain in contact with more endurance-oriented athletes (high %type I motor units, high muscle respiratory capacity, high CS).

Practical Applications

Pacing, the way an athlete expends energy during a competition,  depends on several factors. Although the term pacing strategy is widely used, the term is probably too broad, as “strategy” encompasses the overall race plan, the tactics used to accomplish the strategy, and the highly responsive pattern of energy expenditure, which are all designed to achieve competitive outcomes. The first is the competitive result (best performance vs. defeating competitors). This will lead to whether the pattern of energetic output is smooth and based on the time–distance characteristics of the event or stochastic, where energetic output is focused on “dropping” competitors or preserving energy for the end-spurt. To accomplish these goals, an athlete needs to have a sense of their capacity and be able to interpret internal feedback indicating the magnitude of homeostatic disturbances. They also need to have a good sense of their competitor’s capabilities and be able to interpret signals from their competitors, to vary their tactics. Thus, while the pacing strategy is not likely to discriminate between athletes of widely varying abilities, it may be critical to achieving a desired competitive result in a tolerable physiological state.

Conclusion

Pacing strategies have been of interest to exercise physiologists for at least the last 30 years. Several models have emerged through the years attempting to predict the optimal pattern to finish an event without excess fatigue or excess remaining energy at the finish. These models have shown that pacing reflects a complex relationship between environmental stressors, physiological feedback, and psychological drive with a default pattern of a relatively “even” pacing strategy with a brief “fast start” to optimize time-centric versus head-to-head competition. These templates are robust even in the face of conditions that predictably would change them (hypoxia, glycogen depletion, etc.). Athletes revert to the baseline template unless there is a conscious effort to change for tactical reasons. However, templates may have progressive modifications through repeated performances. Once an “ideal” pacing template is achieved, the athlete may use the “concept of affordances” to modify pacing based on events occurring within an event. Although progressive growth of RPE is characteristic of pacing, more subtle psychodynamic factors such as effect (valence)  appear to be more discriminatory than RPE on whether an athlete remains with competitors or “let's go” partway through an event.

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